English All Topics Intros

 English

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READING

If you want to be able to read confidently there are some rules of English Grammar that can help you.

This unit will help you to learn some important ones.

For example: In a book you are reading someone might ask if a person has food.

The reply can change in different circumstances. For example, three of the following can be used at different times.

(a) They have cassava

(b) They have a cassava

(c) They have an cassava

(d) They have the cassava

The words a, an and the are used with words called nouns. In the sentences above, the word cassava is a noun, because it is the name of a food. You will learn to identify other words that are nouns, and how to compare one noun with another.

Finally, you will learn how to describe "what is happening now", using the present tense of a verb.

LISTENING AND SPEAKING

This unit follows on from the one on Reading, which introduced the use of nouns, articles, adjectives and verbs in the simple present tense.

This unit introduces other parts of speech which will be used to show how to develop the essential on listening and speaking skills. We focus here on the use of prepositions, conjunctions, interjections and verbs in the present continuous and future tenses.

Since we are going to look at listening and speaking skills, the emphasis will be on stress, intonation and pronunciation of words.
A variety of listening and oral texts have been selected to demonstrate the use of these parts of speech. These texts include among others, materials, passages, and speech exercise. 

CONDITIONALS

This topic aims to enable students to develop their language competence by equipping them with the knowledge and understanding of conditionals (i.e. conditional sentences) and using them in every-day communication.
Conditionals (i.e. conditional or if - sentences) are three basic patterns of sentence structures that express situations that contain or depend on certain conditions for some things (or results) to occur. The situations are: either one that is projected as a possibility in the near or far future, or one that is imagined, or one that is hypothetical (i.e. would not have happened because a certain condition was not fulfilled).
Each of these situations is represented by a particular conditional sentence pattern referred to as Conditional 1,Conditional 2, and Conditional 3, respectively.

Main content and concepts.

The first situation, represented by Conditional 1 (or open conditional), expresses the possibility of something happening if a certain condition is fulfilled. The condition may not be fulfilled; there is no certainty. The sentence structure is:
If + simple present tense + will /can/shall/may + plain infinitive (future)
It may be explained like this:
If something happens, then another happens, or will happen, as a result. (It may or may not actually happen: remains a possibility; is very likely).
Example: If they go to the South Pole, they will see penguins.
The second situation, represented by Conditional 2(imagined or unreal condition), expresses something that is improbable or purely imaginary.
The sentence structure is: If + simple past tense + would/could/should/might + plain infinitive.
It may be explained like this: If (or supposing) something happened (or were to happen in future), then another thing would happen as a result.
(All this is imaginary, very unlikely).
Example: If they went to the South Pole, they would see penguins.
The third situation, represented by Conditional 3(that is a purely hypothetical unfulfilled condition,) expresses something that could not have happened because the condition was not fulfilled .
The sentence structure is: If + past perfect tense +would /could/should/might + perfect infinitive.
It may be explained like this: If something had happened in the past (but it didn't happen), then something else would have happened as a result.(All hypothetical: impossible).
Example: If they had gone to the South Pole, they would have seen penguins.

In table form this would be represented as follows:

Kind of condition	Tense in conditional clause	Tense in main clause
Open                             1 Unlikely                        2 Rejected/unfulfilled      3	Present Past simple Past perfect	Future   (will) Conditional  (would) Perfect conditional.(would have)

Conditionals (Conditional or If - sentences)

Introduction

The focus in this unit is on conditionals (or conditional sentences), which are sentence structures based on conditional clauses distinguishable by the use of if. If denotes a condition which, when fulfilled or not fulfilled, produces a certain result (or makes something happen). There are three basic conditional sentence structures and also other variations that are used in special expressions.
The three main kinds of conditionals are distinguished from each other by the use of different combinations of four main tenses (present, future, simple past and past perfect). Conditional type 1 uses the present and future tenses; Conditional type 2 uses the simple past tense and conditional past (would…..) in imagined situations; and Conditional type 3 uses the past perfect tense.
Each conditional is dealt with as a sub-topic in which the function, structure and tense pattern of each are respectively demonstrated. Activities are given to provide situations in which the use of each conditional is realistically practised in speech or writing using random sentences or oral and written texts.

Subtopics:

1).  Developing communicative ability through using the open conditional sentence
      (expressing possibility).
2) Developing communicative ability through using the imaginary or unreal
     past  conditional sentence  (improbability).
3) Developing communicative ability through using the hypothetical conditional sentence
    (impossibility) .
4) Developing communicative ability through using the conditional sentence in special
    aspects of usage.
Acknowledgements:
The slightly adapted quotations in the content summary above are from Use of English by John B. Curtin, the Macmillan Press, London
The table above is adopted from Revision English by R. Forrest Pearson Education Limited 2004 with a few additions.

WRITING

Introduction

In this unit, we are going to look at the Writing skill. This is the last skill among the four language skills, namely; listening, speaking, reading and writing.
We usually write what we have read and we are able to read what we have heard and spoken.
Some parts of speech, that is, verbs in the Past Simple Tense and in the Present Perfect Tense, adverbs, and pronouns are used to show how the writing skill can be developed in students.
In order to help the students develop their writing skill, there will be need to give them as many opportunities as possible to practice writing. Activities have been provided which you may use or improve on and give to your students either in class or as home work.
It is very important to always have the students’ work marked so that they identify their errors and learn from their mistakes. Remedial lessons should be provided in those areas in which the students have not yet acquired the competences.

Sub –topics:

• Developing the writing skill through using adverbs.
• Developing the writing skill through using pronouns.
• Developing the writing skill through using verbs (The Past Simple Tense).
• Developing the writing skill through using verbs (The Present Perfect Tense).

Brief description of topic:

This topic aims to enable the students to develop their competence in writing by equipping them with the knowledge and understanding of adverbs, pronouns and verbs as parts of speech, and other word forms, as tools to build sentences with.
- Writing is the skill of putting together or connecting in a consecutive and continuous way a group of words or sentences to make a coherent text.
- The writing process is developed through the knowledge and understanding of the use of words, learning the writing system including punctuation and spelling according to the conventions of language, control of the structure of the language, and selecting the most appropriate ways of conveying the meaning and purpose of what is communicated. This process involves the use of the other skills of language: - listening, speaking and reading.
- Writing is a multi-dimensional skill consisting of distinct but related activities ranging from copying a variety of words, phrases, sentences and other forms of script like making tables; re-producing what is learned orally or though listening and reading. Re-combining sentences, or re-phrasing and replacing words and phrases; transforming sentences and paragraphs, and composing a sequence of ideas in the form of reporting events, giving explanations, describing or narrating imaginative accounts, and composing poems, dialogues, letters and other forms of writing.

MAIN CONTENT AND CONCEPTS:

1. Among the four key skills of language, writing is the most formal and sophisticated and involves cumulative knowledge, mastery and use of various kinds of language content (i.e. discourse). Writing tasks consist of different kinds and styles of writing, according to content, form, audience and purpose. Thus letters, reports, informative tables or instructions exhibit different kinds and styles of functional writing, as do evocative descriptive or narrative prose, and poetry and drama, of imaginative writing. Each serves a different purpose and a specific audience.
   These different kinds of writing must be reflected in the range of tasks given, and be systematically developed as a step-by-step process, from guided- writing to freer continuous writing, commonly known as composition, throughout secondary education.

• In S1 and S2 emphasis should be on guided functional and imaginative writing. The steps through which the particular piece of writing is developed should be emphasised. Not every product should therefore be a composition, as indicated in the range of writing activities in the description of the topic.
2. The integration of all the skills of language is best demonstrated in preparation for writing tasks. Listening activities leading to note-making or a dictation exercise, oral activities like discussion before writing on a topic, and reading set texts to extract or summarise key points from form content areas to generate ideas to write on. Students’ written products in return can be read out, discussed and form a body of texts to read as examples of good written work.

Controlled exercises ranging from single units of production (e.g. sentence-formation, paragraph-building) to combination of ideas into situational written texts should be introduced through listening, speaking and reading activities. This makes writing a ‘natural’ language process arising from shared experience in which students are active participants.Personal experience should be made use of as much as possible. The students have a wealth of cumulative personal experience that is a reservoir for self –expression. Making use of the potential requires simulation of situations in which students contextualise their own expression of similar experiences. The contexts should be varied and include opportunities to write on topics across the curriculum and contexts beyond the classroom.3. The parts of speech dealt with are and function, respectively, as follows: Adverbs: words that tell more about the action, happening or state described by the verb in a sentence;
Pronouns: words that are used instead of nouns to avoid repetition

Verbs: words that express action, happening or state of being in time perspective.

The main principle is to demonstrate the use of each part of speech in context (using writing texts)

Verb Patterns

In this unit, one aspect of language use and variation (i.e. the ways in which main verbs link with and determine the forms of other verbs in sentences) is demonstrated. Verb patterns are the collective and particular ways in which verbs relate to and affect one another in sentences and determine sentence structures. This is a dynamic process and in each subtopic of the unit particular main verbs are used to generate sentences based on the particular verb forms with which they conform.

There are six basic verb patterns in English. Within each of these are variations in usage. The five subtopics cut across all the six patterns and within each subtopic, the key variations are covered. Each is exemplified by a particular sentence structure which is introduced at the beginning of the subtopic (under main content and concepts). Thus, in the end, all the six basic verb patterns are demonstrated in use by the end of the entire unit. It should be clarified that the focus throughout is on the verb patterns formed from the way verbs affect one another, but not how sentence patterns are formed. Parts of sentences like subject or object are used to illustrate how verbs are linked to one another.

Sub-topics:

1. Developing communicative ability through using verb patterns in sentences with the to-infinitive and plain infinitive
2. Developing communicative ability through using verb patterns in sentences with the gerund (i.e. -ing) form and the to-infinitive
3. Developing communicative ability through using verb patterns in sentences with the present participle and past participle
4. Developing communicative ability through using verb patterns in sentences with interrogative sub-clauses and interrogatives combined with the to -infinitive.

Verbs constitute an important and dominant body of words in communication. Their use in various tenses in different contexts has been demonstrated and illustrated in all the preceding units. In this unit, how selected verbs determine the formation of sentence structures is demonstrated through using them in a variety of verb patterns and sentences. The aim is to widen the students' repertoire of language use, equip them further with the knowledge and understanding of the function of verbs and enable them to use the verbs actively in speech and writing.

Grammar practice:

The types of verb patterns dealt with range from using selected verbs followed by other verbs in the infinitive (both the to-infinitive and the plain infinitive); verbs followed by the gerund form (i.e. -ing); verbs followed by the present or past participle; verbs followed by the that-clause; and verbs followed by interrogative sub clauses or by interrogatives combined with the to-infinitive.

In each sub-topic, the use of each verb pattern outlined above is exemplified, based on the typical sentence structure, which becomes the basis for pattern practice. Some verbs can occur or be used in different verb patterns with various meanings. English learners will need to be helped to deal with problems arising from sorting out the various verb meanings as well as correct or appropriate usage in different verb patterns. Example sentences will guide as models for practice and creative activities.

Main concepts:

 Three main concepts that determine verb forms (and add to an understanding of verb    patterns) are to be borne in mind:

1. Verbs and tense formation: depending on whether the verbs are regular or irregular, and how the past tense and the past participle are formed respectively. The infinitive is the basic (simple) form of the verb (whether it is a regular or an irregular verb)
2. Verbs in the transitive or intransitive form: whether a particular verb may take an object (transitive) or does not take an object (intransitive)
3. Active and passive voice.

Active verbs indicate that it is the subject of the sentence (e.g. He, the boys, Mr. Owino, etc) performing the action. When the subject is acted on, the verb is passive. E.g.:- The tree fell across the road (active).

                      - The tree was cut down by Mr. Owino (passive). 

OUR ENVIRONMENT

Introduction

This unit explores the learners’ environment and how the learner can use language skills of speech, reading, writing and listening to exploit it for his own good as well as for the community. The activities are focused on the formal and informal contexts of work which a learner may be exposed to.

The unit has therefore been divided into two major areas of work starting from the learner’s immediate environment, the home, as well as the professional areas of work. In addition, the outstanding grammar points are also discussed.

It is important to remember that each language lesson must have the following 3 elements:

1. Engaging learners by building interest
2. A study focus on a language aspect
3. An opportunity to practice learnt material

Objectives

By the end of the unit learners should be able to:

1. Communicate about chores and work in the most appropriate way.
2. Identify areas which can be exploited in our environment for monetary benefit and for the community where we live.

Job related life skills

As you teach ensure that the following skills are deliberately achieved.

Personal attributes - interpersonal, relationship, persuasion, leadership and creativity.

Communication – communication.

Team working - team work.

Problem solving – analysis.

Application of Number – numeracy.

Information skills – observation.

EDUCATION AND LEADERSHIP

Introduction

Brief description:

• This unit explores the learners’ use of language vis a vis the setting and how the learner can use language skills of speech, reading, writing and listening to exploit it for his own good as well as for the community.
• It also explores the impact of language usage in particular settings especially in situations where one can be both persuasive and polite. 
• In addition the outstanding grammar points are also discussed.
• It is important to remember that each language lesson must have the following 3 elements:
• Engaging learners by building interest.
• A study focusing on  a specific language aspect.
• An opportunity to practice learnt material.

Objectives:

By the end of the unit learners should be able to:

1. Use English language in areas of leadership and be effective.
2. Show appreciation for the value and role of language in an educated community.
3. Draw a line between the learnt and the educated in the way they use language.

Job-Related Life Skills

1. Personal attributes – behave appropriately, punctuality, reliability, self confidence, seek advice, show tenacity and motivation, be self critical and imaginative.
2. Communication – ability to read, write, listen and speak in appropriate ways for different audiences. Know and apply general and specialised vocabulary.
3. Team working - ability to cooperate and share tasks with colleagues.
4. Problem solving – goal focused, identify constraints, seek out relevant information, evaluate alternatives and make decisions/choices.
5. Implementation and Application – the ability to carry out complex operations and follow instructions to achieve accurate results.
6. Application of Number – ability to work with and present numerical data, using appropriate intermediate calculations
7. Information skills – ability to identify information needs, observe and collect evidence, and present findings appropriately using graphs, pictures and reports.
   
   SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
   Introduction
   Following instructions is a core value for any student especially one in a candidate class.
   This unit explores the use of the active and passive voice in experimental instruction and reporting where one is expected to expeditiously follow step by step the guidelines given.
   A student is expected to give a feedback on what he has learnt using a passive voice. The question is; what is an active voice and what is a passive voice?
   In grammar, the voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action that the verb expresses and the participants identified by its arguments i.e. the subject, object e.t.c.  
   When the subject is the agent or actor of the verb (what has been elementarily expressed as the ‘doer’), the verb is in the active voice.
   When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, it is said to be in the passive voice.
   For example, in the sentence:
               The cat ate the mouse.
   The verb ‘ate’ is in the active voice, but in the sentence:
               The mouse was eaten by the cat.
   The verbal phrase ‘was eaten’ is passive.
   In a transformation from an active-voice clause to an equivalent passive–voice construction, the subject and the direct object switch grammatical roles.
   The direct object gets promoted to subject and the subject demoted to an optional status. In the examples above, the mouse serves as the direct object in the active-voice version, but becomes the subject in the passive version.
   The subject of the active-voice version, the cat, becomes part of a prepositional phrase in the passive version of the sentence and could be left out entirely.
   Passive voice is not a single word form but is made up of a form of the auxiliary to be and the past participle of the main verb.
   With Active voice, the verb form which the subject of the sentence performs or causes the action is expressed by the verb.
   Tools of thumb:
   • active verbs move the action and reveal the actors
   • Passive verbs emphasize the receiver, the victim.
   • The verb to be links words and ideas.